Cartagena, Colombia

Cartagena de Indias, is a large Caribbean beach resort city on the northern coast of Colombia in the Caribbean Coast Region and capital of Bolívar Department. The city had a population of 892,545 as of the 2005 census, making it the fifth-largest city in Colombia and giving the Cartagena urban area the status of fifth-largest urban area in Colombia. Cartagena is a centre of economic activity in the Caribbean, as well a popular tourist destination.

Activity and development of the Cartagena region is dated back to 4000 B.C. around Cartagena Bay by varying cultures of indigenous peoples. The Spanish colonial city was founded on June 1, 1533 and named after Cartagena, Spain. Cartagena served a key role in the development of the region during the Spanish eras; it was a center of political and economic activity due to the presence of royalty and wealthy viceroys. In 1984, Cartagena's colonial walled city and fortress were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Bogotá and Cartagena, the Athens of America

After Vernon began what is called the 'Silver Age' of the city (1750–1808). This time was one of permanent expansion of the existing buildings, massive immigration from all the other cities of the Viceroyalty, increase of the economic and political power of the city and a population growth spurt not equaled since that time. Political power that was already shifting from Bogotá to the coast completed its relocation, and the Viceroys decided to reside in Cartegena permanently. The inhabitants of the city were the richest of the colony, the aristocracy erected noble houses on their lands to form great estates, libraries and printing establishments were opened, and the first café in New Granada was even established. The good times of steady progress and advancement in the second half of the 18th century came to an abrupt end in 1808 with the general crisis of the Spanish Empire that came from the Mutiny of Aranjuez and all its consequences.

For more than 275 years, Cartagena was under Spanish rule. On November 11, 1811, Cartagena declared its independence.

Geography

Location

Cartagena faces the Caribbean Sea to the west. To the south is the Cartagena Bay, which has two entrances: Bocachica (Small Mouth) in the south, and Bocagrande (Big Mouth) in the north. Cartagena is located at 10°25' North, 75°32' West (10.41667, -75.5333).1

Climate

Cartagena de Indias features a tropical wet and dry climate. Cartagena de Indias averages around 90% humidity, with rainy seasons typically in April–May and October–November. The climate tends to be hot and windy. The months of November to February tend to be more windy months, giving an extra cooling to the otherwise high tropical temperatures.

Cartagena de Indias is rarely touched by the hurricanes that decimate other Caribbean capitals like Havana, Santo Domingo, Kingston or San Juan. Although the city is in the Caribbean, the mainland is quite far south, isolating it from the wind currents that feed the hurricanes. The last hurricane to arrive at the city was Hurricane Santa, which had a strange arrival in 1988 and was debilitated after passing Panama.

Transportation

As the commercial and touristic hub of the country the city has many transportation facilities, particularly in the seaport, air, and fluvial areas.

Land transportation

The city is linked to the northern part of the Caribbean Region through roads 90 and 90A, more commonly called Central Caribbean Road. This Road passes through Barranquilla, Santa Marta and Riohacha ending in Paraguachón, Venezuela and continues with Venezuelan numeration all the way to Caracas.

To the southeast the city has more entrances:

Road 25: Going through Turbaco and Arjona, and through the Montes de María when a fork divides it continuing to Sincelejo as National 25 and finally ending in Medellín, and to the east to Valledupar as number 80.

Road 25 A: Going also to Sincelejo, but avoiding the mountains, finally connects with 25 in the forementioned city.

Air transportation

The Rafael Núñez International Airport, is the busiest airport in the caribbean region and the fourth in passenger traffic in the country. The code of the airport is CTG, having flights to almost all domestic airports and many connections to Eldorado International Airport in Bogotá. Excessive operational costs and easier connections and better prices had been shifting the gross international connection passengers to the nearer Tocumen International Airport in Panama and Queen Beatrix International Airport in Aruba while also more companies prefer to serve the Colombian market from Cartagena de Indias, due to better geographical and atmospherical conditions.

Because of this growing general air traffic shift fIt is thought may be finished by 2020, the project favored by many in the region the interior to these coastal airports, studies had been made to build a bigger new airport in the area of Barbacoas Bay in the southern city limits. This airport, if approved, could be seen as a challenge to Bogotá Airport and it is plausible to think on some people pressurizing for a standstill.

Railroad transportation

The city used to have a railroad station near today's "La Matuna" neighborhood, but in the late 50s there was a general trend toward dismantling the railroad system and replacing it with paved roads.

Sea transportation

As the busiest container port in the country, and third in grain transportation, the city is well connected with the ports of the Caribbean main, and the rest of the world. The city is served with three open ports, and more than 40 private ports.

The open ports of the City are:

Sociedad Portuaria de Cartagena de Indias (Port Society of Cartagena de Indias). Specialized in container management, the first of his class in the country, 3rd. busiest in the caribbean sea, and 99th ranked port in the world.

Muelles El Bosque (El Bosque Docks) Specialized in grain storage, expanding to the container market.

Terminal de Contenedores de Cartagena de Indias (Container Terminal of Cartagena de Indias) Container management.

Its important to note, that the first have acquired the assets of the last to develop a new port in the external bay that intends to duplicate the container capacity of the port in general by 2011 and triplicate it in 2015.

Of the private ports of the city we can mention:

The port of the Cartagena de Indias Oil Refinery (REFICAR S.A.)

SABMiller brewery port.

Argos cement port.

Dow Chemical raw materials embarkment port

BASF Colombia raw materials embarkment port

Du Pont private embarkment port

Cemex cement port.

Dole Packing house

Colombian Navy Steelworks port.

Fluvial transportation

Since the 17th century the bay has been connected to the Magdalena River by the Dique Canal, built by Governor Pedro Zapata de Mendoza. After Colombian independence, the canal was abandoned and growing centralization left the city without resources to fund the vital artery, the last important maintenance work being done in the 50s during Laureano Gómez's administration. Some improvements were made by local authorities in the 1980s, but they were insufficient because of technical objections from the central government that decreed that the "maintenance" of the canal did not fall under the jurisdiction of the local government. From then on, maintenance of the canal was more or less delayed, though it is still functional.

Many Caribbean and Cartagenian political leaders argue that this state of affairs might change with a return to pre-independence funding and tax system schemes and that under such systems the canal would be maintained properly and even expanded, benefiting the national economy.

Culture

José Fernández de Madrid was one of the first playwrights of New Granada and his personal library was one of the richest of his time born in Cartagena, the University of Cartagena named its library system in his memory.

Libraries

The city has many public and private libraries:

The Universidad de Cartagena José Fernández Madrid Library: Started in 1821 when the university opened as the "University of Magdalena and Ithsmus". Serves mainly the students and faculty of this university but anyone can use its services.

Divided in buildings across the city being assigned to the Faculties it serves accordingly each area. The main building is in C. de la Universidad 64 and the second biggest section is located in Av. Jose Vicente Mogollón 2839.

The Bartolomé Calvo Library: Founded in 1843 and established in its current place in 1900 is one of the main libraries of the Caribbean Coast and the biggest of the city. Its address is: C. de la Inquisición, 23.

The History Academy of Cartagena de Indias Library: Opened in 1903, many of its books date from more than a century before from donations of members and benefactors. Its entrance is more restricted due to secure handling procedure reasons as ancient books require, but it can be requested in the Academy office in Plaza de Bolivar 112.

The Technological University of Bolívar Library: Opened in 1985 Although small in general size, its sections on engineering and electronics are immense and its demand is mostly on this area, being located in Camino de Arroyohondo 1829.

The American Hispanic Culture Library: Opened in 1999, it already existed a smaller version without Spanish funding in the Casa de España since the early 1940s but in 1999 was enlarged to serve Latin America and the Caribbean in the old convent of Santo Domingo. It specializes on Hispanic Culture and History and is a continental epicenter of seminaries on history and restoration of buildings, the restoration of the convent and the enlargement of the library was and still is a personal proyect of Juan Carlos I of Spain who visits it regularly. Its located in Plaza Santo Domingo 30, but its entrance is in C. Gastelbondo 52.

Jorge Artel Library: Opened in 1997, serves the area of the southwest districts of the city, it is mostly for children. It is located in Camino del Socorro 222

Balbino Carreazo Library: Located in Pasacaballos, a suburban neighborhood of the southeastern part of the city, serves mostly the suburbs of Pasacaballos, Ararca, Leticia del Dique and Matunilla. It is located in Plaza de Pasacaballos 321

District Libraries: Although small, this system goes grassroots to neighborhoods circulating books, generally each district library has around 5000 books.

Theatres and concert halls

Performing arts have always been a big part of Cartagena's cultural life. The first carnivals and western theaters that served in New Granada operated here, more precisely on today's Calle del Coliseo. This was an activity patronized by the Viceroy Manuel de Guirior and Antonio Caballero y Góngora, who, like their predecessors, spent most of the time of their mandates ruling in Cartagena de Indias.

Heredia Theatre: Opened in 1911, inspired by the Teatro Tacón of Havana, was designed by Jose Enrique Jaspe. After years of abandonment, it was reborn in the 1990s and continues to be a cultural center. It is located in Plazuela de La Merced 5.

Universidad de Cartagena Aula Maxima: Although in existence since the early 19th century, it is used mainly for debates which began in the late 1920s, and it still has that use today.

The city has registered more than 100 companies of theater and traditional or contemporary dancing and is regularly visited by ballet and opera companies. Many of these local theater and traditional companies have their own auditoriums, among them: Reculá del Ovejo House, Teatro Contemporaneo Cartagenero, Ekobios, and Colegio del Cuerpo.

Cali

Santiago de Cali, simply referred to as Cali, is a city in western Colombia and the capital of the Valle del Cauca Department. With a population of 2.5 million, Cali is the second largest city in the country. It has one of the fastest growing economies and infrastructure in the country because of its geographical location. The city was founded on July 25, 1536 by the Spanish conquistador Sebastián de Belalcázar.

Cali is the shortened form of the official name of the city Santiago de Cali. The first part of the full name honours Saint James the apostle (Santiago in Spanish) whose feast day is celebrated on July 25. The origin of the word "Cali" comes from the local native Indian tribe the "Calima" or "Calimas" descendants of the "Chibcha" tribe. Others believe that the word "Cali" has Quechua origin, and it was brought by the Yanaconas Indians that came from Quito serving Sebastián de Belalcázar. This theory is related to the fact that near Quito there is an indigenous town named Calacali.

History

The founder of Cali, Sebastián de Belalcázar, came to the American continent in the third voyage made by Columbus in 1498. In 1532, after serving in Darién and Nicaragua, he joined Francisco Pizarro in the conquest of Perú. In 1534 Belalcázar separated from Pizarro's expedition to find the city of Quito, and later in his search of El Dorado he entered the territory of what is now Colombia, founding the cities of Pasto and Popayán.

On July 25, 1536, Belalcázar founded Santiago de Cali, first established a few miles north of the present location, near what are now the towns of Vijes and Riofrio. Under the orders of Belalcázar, captain Miguel Muñoz moved the city to its present location in 1537, where the chaplain Brother Santos de Añasco celebrated a mass in the place occupied by the Church La Merced today, and Belalcázar designated Pedro de Ayala as the first municipal authority.

During the Colonia (colonial period), Santiago de Cali was part of the gobernación of Popayán, which was part of Quito's Audiencia. Although initially Cali was the capital of Popayán's Gobernación, in 1540 Belalcázar moved this function to Popayán due to better weather.

Independence

On 3 July 1810 Santiago de Cali refused to recognize the Council of Regency of Spain and established its own junta. This local uprising predates the national one in Bogotá by 17 days. The Governor of Popayán, Miguel Tacón y Rosique, organized an army to control the uprising. The people from Cali called for help to the "Junta Suprema" in Bogotá, which sent a contingent under colonel Antonio Baraya to support the independence cause. For mutual defense, Cali also formed, with Anserma, Cartago, Toro, Buga and Caloto, the "Friend Cities of the Cauca Valley", also known as Confederated cities of the Cauca Valley, which declared independence from the Governorate of Popayán on 1 February 1811, although they continued to recognize the absent Ferdinand VII as their head of state. On 28 March 1811 in the battle of Bajo Palacé the Army of Baraya defeated the royalist army with the help of Atanasio Girardot.

In the following years there were many battles between royalists and local militia. After having been released from captivity by Napoleon, Ferdinand VII sent a large army under the command of the "Pacificador" (Pacifier) Pablo Morillo who restored royalist rule in the area by 1816.

Modernism

In the 19th century Santiago de Cali, capital of the Valley of the Cauca River State, was a very quiet community with no more than 20,000 inhabitants. The urban center of the city were in the neighborhoods of Empedrado or Altozano, which were surrounded by La Merced and San Antonio neighborhoods.

The city was surrounded by mango plantations, pastures and communal lands that were transferred from the Spanish Crown to the impoverished class. From the market gardens on these lends the city was supplied in food resources. The economy was based mainly on livestock, sugar cane, beef, panela (jaggery), a sugar derivative, cheese and the gold mines from the Pacific; there was also a small growing industrialization sector of the economy.

Recent history

On August 7, 1956, at around 1 a.m., seven Colombian army trucks filled with 42 tons of dynamite exploded near the train station, destroying around eight city blocks. A nearby army barracks was instantly destroyed, killing all 500 soldiers. Windows were shattered for miles. More than 1,000 people were killed and several thousand injured.

In the year 1971 Santiago de Cali hosted the Pan American Games, an event which is considered by many as the height of the city's golden age as a model of civic orderliness: after it Cali was named the Sports Capital of Colombia. In 1982, the government of Cali inaugurated what is now the third largest building in the Republic of Colombia. "La Torre de Cali", or The Cali Tower. It has a hotel, offices and apartment complexes. It stands at 42 floors above the city, making it the 3rd largest building in Colombia and the largest building in Cali.

Geography 

Santiago de Cali is located in a valley. The city is completely bordered by mountains to the West, Los farallones are the closest to the city. The Eastern part of the city is bordered by the Cauca river, North and South both are extended plains, in the first one you can find the industrial city of Yumbo part of Cali's metropolitan area, to the south you can find Jamundi, also part of the metropolitan area. The city is mainly flat, but there are areas mostly to the West that are Mountainous, like San Antonio and La loma de la Cruz, both are tourist sites. There are Several rivers that descend from the Western Mountain Range and empty into the Cauca River those rivers pass through the metropolitan area of Cali. In the western part of the city the Aguacatal River flows into the Cali River, which continues on to the Cauca River. In the south the rivers Cañaveralejo, Lilí, and Meléndez flow into the CVC south channel which also empties into the Cauca River. Farther south, the banks of the Pance River are a popular place for recreation and leisure.

Climate

Under Koppen's climate classification, Cali features a tropical savanna climate. The local climate is semi-tropical as the Western Mountain Range screens the flow of humidity from the Pacific coast towards the interior of the country. In the afternoons Cali enjoys a fresh cross breeze that originates in the west and blows east. The Western Mountain Range rises from an average of 2,000 meters above sea level in the northern part of the city to approximately 4,000 meters to the south. Because of this variation in altitude, the weather in the northwest portion of the city is drier than in the southwest. The average annual precipitation varies between 900 mm to 1,800 mm depending on the metropolitan zone for a citywide average of approximately 1,000 mm. Cali's average temperature is 24 °C (75 °F) with an average low temperature of 19 °C (66 °F) and a high of 30 °C (86 °F).

Due to its proximity to the equator there are no major seasonal variations. However, locals refer to the dry season as the city's "summer" period and call the rainy season "winter." There are typically two rainy seasons: from April to May and from October to November. Regardless, rain can be expected to fall at any point during the year nourishing the city's permanent green and lush vegetation.

Tourism,Historic district

Santiago de Cali offers historical areas with cultural variety and other attractions. In downtown Cali, there can be found many historical churches like La Merced and La Ermita. Cali contains a well preserved historical center, the most important zone is La plaza de Caycedo, considered the center of the city, which is a square surrounded by many historical and modern buildings like El edificio Otero, La Catedral and El Palacio de Justicia; This plaza is close to other touristic places, like The Saint Francis church (in Spanish, Iglesia de San Francisco), the municipal theater and La Merced church. The city is also rich in monuments, parks, squares and museums. The most emblematic sculptures are Cristo Rey, located upon a mountain range; Sebastian de Belalcazar, founder of the city; and Las tres Cruces, a place of pilgrimage during the days of the Holy Week.

Regular tourism

There is a variety of nightclubs and restaurants. In the city you can find whole districts dedicated to tourism, for example Granada, one of the most traditional districts in Cali, full of gourmet restaurants, fashion stores and boutiques. Another spot to visit is along "La sexta" or the 6th street. Many types of nightclubs are there, as are restaurants and hotels. This area is usually called the "zona rosa" or pink zone, and is located in the north very close to Chipichape mall. In the recent years, the restaurant industry has boomed, ranking Cali very close to Bogotá in first-class restaurant options.

Main touristic centers:

Plaza de Cayzedo: The main square of the city, located in downtown Cali. The plaza is named after Cali's hero, Joaquin de Cayzedo y Cuero.

Parque del perro: Located in the San Fernando neighborhood, this is one of the most popular areas in the city, full of restaurants and bars. If you want to party or just have a nice dinner, then this is the place for you. The park gets its name because it has a dog monument in the middle of it.

Sebastian de Belalcazar's monument: It is the most visited and popular monument in the city[citation needed] located in the hills overlooking the city. The monument is famous due to its pointing finger which is point to the opposite direction of the valley, while its face is looking down at the city.

Cali River: One of the most peaceful zones in the city, the river is located in the west and is surrounded by restaurants, hotels and museums like "La Tertulia", an art museum.

Cristo Rey: A religious monument located on a hill that offers the best view of the city. It is 31 m high, from which 5 m belong to the basis.

San Antonio: It is the most traditional neighborhood of Cali. In the colonial age, it was the extension of the downtown. Although it was split off by 'La calle Quinta' (Fifth street), it conserves its traditional aura which makes a inevitable step on the visit. All the neighborhood is on a hill, and at the top you will find the San Antonio Park.

Juanchito: Although many would prefer to keep it away of the list, Juanchito has made fame. This zone of Cali (which actually belongs to another municipality) might have had the largest number of discothèques and clubs of the country. It all started on the sixties, when Salsa began winning caleños hearts. Some did not like the idea of insinuating dances, but for the majority it became a cult. And Juanchito their temple. To get there, caleños must pass a bridge over the Cauca river. A simple action (?) that has been immortalized by the music, Salsa of course.

Cali Zoo: Ranked in top 5 of Latin American zoos. It has became most than a place where to show animals, it makes research and has some formations. Its location could not be more wonderful, alongside the Cali river, just where valley and mountains get together.

Farallones de Cali: A part of the city seats on hills belonging to the Colombian western chain mountain. Beyond these hills there is a full new world,[citation needed][unbalanced opinion] which is protected by the Colombian government. It is the Farallones de Cali national park. Although Caleños have not yet fully discovered it, in the recent years it has boomed as a touristic destination for a full range of different people; adventurists to escalate, walk, paragliding; naturists for its natural and life environments; or simply for those looking for 'cold' weather minutes away of urban areas.

La Ceiba: A large and old Ceiba tree on a street corner at the west of the city.

Just walking could not mean a lot, but calenos love doing it in the late afternoon. After 4 pm, when heat goes down, breeze starts. It comes from the neighboring mountains, and refreshes souls

It is normal in Cali to think of a shopping mall as a touristic place. Most of them are built like urban boulevards, with open-air walking corridors that look like a 'Main Street' side walk. With large facilities providing full amenities, Caleños love just talking walks in them, enjoying the fact unbalanced opinion that everything is at their hands. The most traditional malls are Unicentro at south and Chipichape at North; both built in the open-air style. Others of this type are Palmetto Plaza, Jardin Plaza and Cosmocentro. Other malls in Cali are Centenario, Unico and La14. Tens of smaller malls are spread all over the city. Certainly, bargains will not be found on most of these malls. Downtown's 13th, 14th and 15th streets are the bargains' hub of the city. In the 'San Andresito' or 'Pasaje Cali' malls (or any of that kind in the area) you can buy thousands of inexpensive China-made products. Street-selling is legal in only certain locations. There you could find one-of-a-kind crafts.

Medical Tourism

According to recent Lonely Planet guides of Colombia, Cali has recently become famous for being a prime destination for people seeking cheap cosmetic surgery. Cali's surgeons are famous in Colombia for having shaped some of the country's most beautiful women. There have been no significant reports of problems in this area, but Lonely Planet advises proper research before pursuing such an idea.

Transportation

Santiago de Cali is served by Alfonso Bonilla Aragón International Airport (IATA: CLO, ICAO: SKCL), located in the City of Palmira. It is Colombia's third largest airport in terms of passengers transporting (3,422,919 in 2010) and 4th in cargo. Alfonso Bonilla Aragón is located in a long, narrow valley that runs from north to south, and is surrounded by mountains up to 14,000 feet (4,000 m) high. The airport is connected to the city by a highway known as the "recta a Palmira", that in the last few years has been upgraded to make it a more accessible airport to Cali and the surrounding city centers in the region. The airport has also has been remodeled recently, some of the last significant events in those terms were the inauguration of the VIP room in the National terminal and the installation of a main electronic screen in the center of the check-in area. As for any international airport, you can find different services and facilities :

Car rental : AVIS (+572 4860900) and other international companies.

Hotel

Restaurants, Coffees and bars : Some typical of Cali and Colombia

Handicrafts stores

Duty Free-Paid

Travel Agencies

Financial services (Locals) and Currency exchanges

Telecommunication services

Beauty Salon

Nail Salon

There is a military airport close to the city's downtown. The Marco Fidel Suarez Military Air Base is located in the east side of the city and belongs to the Colombian Air Force. It is used as one of the main training centers for the country's Fighter pilots.

Public transportation

The city of Cali offers a variety of ways to move through the city; in March 2009, The Masivo Integrado de Occidente (MIO) began operations. It is planned to be the primary system that connects the city. Taxis and old buses are the secondary way to get around. Taxis are one of the best systems that tourists can use, as they are relatively inexpensive and are the most secure of the two. Non-MIO buses round-out the system and are used primarily by the working class to get around and are the least expensive to use. Buses are secure but not at the same level as taxis. This part of the transport in the city is waiting a needed reorganization of routes.

Masivo Integrado de Occidente (MIO): A massive transit system; M.I.O is based on the transportation model that consist in the use of articulated buses that runs through dedicated bus lanes running down the middle of major thoroughfares. MIO bus stations are locate in the middle of the thoroughfare, and are connected with sidewalks by dedicated pedestrian crossings or bridges. The system layout is 243 kilometers and is distributed in a main trunk, pre-trunk and complementary corridors. The system also integrated the renovation and recuperation of the public space. The MIO system was not only designed for the public transport, but built for public use with extensive new sidewalks, parks, gardens and public squares for the public to enjoy.

Barranquilla

Barranquilla is an industrial port city and municipality located in northern Colombia, near the Caribbean Sea. The capital of the Atlántico Department, it is the largest industrial city and port in the Colombian Caribbean region with a population of 1,148,506 as of 2005, which makes it Colombia's fourth most populous city after Bogotá, Medellín and Cali.

Barranquilla lies strategically next to the delta of the Magdalena River, 7.5 kilometres (originally 25 km before rapid urban growth) from its mouth at the Caribbean Sea, serving as port for river and maritime transportation within Colombia. It is also the main industrial, shopping, educational and cultural centre of the Caribbean Region of Colombia. The city is the core of the Metropolitan Area of Barranquilla, which is constituted by the municipalities of Soledad, Galapa, Malambo, and Puerto Colombia.

Barranquilla was legally established as a town on April 7, 1813, although it dated from at least 1629. It grew into an important port, serving as a haven for immigrants from Europe, especially during and right after World War I and World War II, with waves of additional immigrants from the Middle East and Asia. Barranquilla became Colombia's principal port, and with its level of industrialization and modernity earned the city the nickname Colombia's Golden Gate (Spanish: La Puerta de Oro de Colombia). In the 1940s, Barranquilla was the second largest city in Colombia and one of the most modern cities in the Caribbean and in South America, while later, local administrations, given to widespread corruption, brought about a decline in the standard of living. As government investment increased in other Colombian cities, Barranquilla's national position was surpassed.

The city is home to one of the most important folk and cultural festivals of Colombia, the Carnival of Barranquilla, which was declared a National Cultural Heritage by the Congress of Colombia in 2001 and recognized by UNESCO in 2003. Ernesto Cortissoz International Airport, was built in Barranquilla in 1919, becoming the first airport in South America. The city is served by domestic and international flights.

21st century

In the 21st century, the city has been working on new projects to restore itself as the strategic capital within the country. Rapid urban growth, including the mass migration of peasants to the main cities, attracted by economic development, has led to the demand of numerous proposals to accommodate such growth. Barranquilla has always been famous for its chaotic urban planning, understandable given its spontaneous origin as a port and the reality of high administrative corruption which has hampered the channeling of resources for building an urban centre of greater structure and dimensions. The presentation of a new infrastructure, changes in local and regional administration, decentralization since 1991, international pressure to open markets, and competition between the other major Colombian cities will bring about considerable development in Barranquilla into the 21st century.

Flora

According to the Agustín Codazzi Geographic Institute (Instituto Geográfico Agustín Codazzi), Barranquilla has a dry tropical forest vegetation (according to the Holdridge life zones), which includes species like cacti, mangroves, Opuntia elatior, Acanthocereus, Prosopis juliflora, Divi-divi, Tabebuia rosea, Cordia alba and varieties of acacia like Flamboyant or flame tree and Leucaena leucacephala.

In the fertile lands water by the Magdalena River, one can find species like Eichhornia azurea, Typha angustifolia, Heliconia, Eichhornia crassipes, Bactris minor, Anacardium excelsum, Ficus radula, and Lecythis minor.

In the urban areas, one can find tree species such as Gliricidia sepium, Cassia nodosa, Bursera simaruba, Terminalia catappa, Casuarina equisetifolia, and varieties of Ceiba like Ceiba pentandra, Hura crepitans and Bombax septenatum, Ficus elastica, Ochroma pyramidale, Erythroxylum cartagenensis, Licania tomentosa, Ficus religiosa, Ficus benghalensis, Spathodea campanulata, Enterolobium cyclocarpum, Samanea saman, Capparis odoratissima, Tabebuia coralibe, Gmelina arborea, Ficus nitida, Cordia sebestena, Tabebuia chrysantha, Pithecellobium lanceolatum, Kigelia pinnata, Swietenia macrophylla, Thespesia populnea, Sterculia apetala, Calophyllum mariae, Platymiscium pinnatum, Cordia bidentata, Cocos nucifera, Ficus benjamina, Guazuma ulmifolia, Albizia guachapele, Erythrina variegata, Crescentia cujete, Cassia fistula, Zyzygium cuminil, Azadirachta indica, Sapindus saponaria and varieties of palm trees like Roystonea regia and Phoenix roebelenii.

Fruit trees in the area include mangifera indica, Manilkara zapota, Melicoccus bijugatus, Psidium littorale, Coccoloba uvifera, Zyziphus vulgaris, Annona squamosa, Tamarindus indica, Spondias purpurea, Anacardium occidentale, guanábana, Citrus x limon and Swingla ornata.

Fauna

Some animal species can be found in the city such as birds like the owl, wren, the parrot; fish such as mullet in the marshes; insects such as butterflies, flies, mosquitoes, gnats, cockroaches and termites; mammals such as dogs, wolves and cats, monkeys and rodents like squirrels; reptiles such as iguanas, snakes, tortoises. In some rural areas horses and donkeys and cattle such as pigs and goats are reared.

Ecology and natural resources

Barranquilla has important ecosystems such as the Magdalena River, Mallorquín Swamp and the Eastern pipe system. The completion of the construction of embankments of Bocas de Ceniza in 1936 resulted in the deterioration of the swamp, which was originally four marshes, and led to the detriment of the nearby beaches of Puerto Colombia.

The stream of La Victoria flows through Barranquilla Botanical Garden, a community and recreational green area for public use with an approximate area of 7 hectares, located in the southeastern part of the city, in the neighborhood of La Victoria. The lush vegetation and clear water springs have allowed a suitable habitat for rare native plant and animal species found within the city.

Environmental pollution

Air quality

Under wind, atmospheric pollutants move in a north and northeasterly direction, and in times of low winds or moderate winds, are more evenly distributed over the city. The most polluting industrial processes in the city are ammonium sulfate, cement, plaster and paper pulp. The emission of gases from motor vehicle traffic is more critical in the central district, where much of the business is. The main source of air pollution is from the vehicles at 34% and then industry with 18%. The pollutants emitted by vehicles are carbon monoxide (89.12%), sulfur dioxide (0.23%), hydrocarbons (6.46%), oxides of nitrogen (3.82%) and other particles (0. 37%). To help remedy this problem, several state enterprises and private sector have supported a project to convert liquid fuel vehicles to natural gas. Furthermore, the city has installed more than 12 service stations catering to natural gas vehicles. Barranquilla is the fourth biggest atmospheric polluter from industry. According to research conducted by the Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental Studies of Colombia (IDEAM), monthly concentrations in Barranquilla of particulate matter smaller than 160 micrograms per cubic meter exceeds the highest international standard allowed of 70. The causes of this problem lie heavily on the poor quality of petrol and diesel used by vehicles of the city, with record levels of 5,000 ppm (parts per million sulfur) and 4,500 ppm respectively, when there are countries whose rates do not even exceed 50.

Water pollution

All of the surface water systems of Barranquilla, the Magdalena River, the Mallorquín swamp, and the system of pipes and streams in the east are subject to water pollution as well as the dumping of raw sewage and solid waste by individuals. The environmental impact has been reduced mainly on the Mallorquín swamp with the construction of ponds and the Estación Depuradora de Aguas Residuales (EDAR) by the Triple A.

Noise

The maximum noise allowed is 64 decibels for residential areas, and 70 to 75 for commercial and industrial areas. In the center of Barranquilla, the noise generated by vehicular traffic and commercial activity in peak hours can reach levels above 90 decibels, making it a risk factor for population health.

Economy

To give a boost to the infrastructure development of the city, World Bank (IBRD) loans were sought from 1952 onwards to improve municipal water works, sewage system and slaughterhouse services. Because of its importance in the sector of national economy, the municipality of Barranquilla passed to the category of Special Industrial District and Port in 1993. Barranquilla is a major industrial centre and its economic activity is dynamic, concentrated mainly in industry, commerce, finance, services and fishing. Among the industrial products are vegetable fats and oils, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, industrial footwear, dairy products, meats, beverages, soap, building materials, furniture, plastics, cement, metalworking parts, garments clothing, buses and boats, and petroleum products. Its port is also the hub for cotton from the rural areas, coffee and petroleum, apart from the diversified industrial products manufactured in the city.

Although that is still the city is agricultural, for both agriculture and livestock play an important role even at the base of its economy from the 1970s, when frustrated long drought and cattle crops suffered from lack of water and pasture. The women excelled in crafts such as gopher flowers and feathers, enrruchados hats, canvas bags and finally making clothes.

The Arabs (Syro Lebanese) and Jews who were a small group of immigrants to the country in late 19th century were exclusively involved in commercial activities and made significant value additions to the economy of Caribbean Columbia as a whole and Barranquilla in particular. Their prominent presence in the community known as “cosmopolitan bourgeoisie” as social and political elites, which has enabled them to diversify their activities.

Mitú

Mitú is the capital city of the department of Vaupés in Colombia. The town of Mitu is the most remote Capital of Department in Colombia.

In November, 1998 an estimated 1,900 FARC guerrilla members of the Eastern Bloc of the FARC-EP tried to take over the town by force, against 120 National Police members and one Colombian National Army Battalion. The Colombian Air Force and Army Aviation supported ground forces with air raids. Mitu was left partially destroyed and some 60 policemen and 10 civilians died along with over 800 guerrilla members. In their escape FARC took hostages as human shields including some 40 to 45 members of the Colombian Military.

On June 13, 2010, two of the hostages captured in Mitu in 1998, National Police Col. (now Gen.) Luis Mendieta and National Police Col. Enrique Murillo were freed by the Colombian army in a spectacular rescue that also freed two others captured in Miraflores to the west in 1998.

Puerto Carreño

Puerto Carreño is the departmental capital, and a municipality, of the department of Vichada in the llanos of Colombia.

In 1913 the Colombian government created the province (comisaria) of Vichada and it was decided that its capital should be at the convergence of the Orinoco and Meta rivers where there was a small village known locally as El Picacho. In 1934 the town was renamed after Pedro Maria Carreño, the Colombian Minister of External Relations from 1912 to 1913. The "municipio" (similar to county in the U.S.) was created in 1974. On July 5, 1991, Vichada's status was updated to "departamento" under the Colombian Constitution and Puerto Carreño was ratified as its capital.

The DANE (Colombian government's bureau for statistics) projected Puerto Carreño's municipal population to be around 10,034 for 2005, based on the 1993 Census. There are some Indigenous tribes within Puerto Carreño's administrative zone as well.

Economy

Economic activity is based on agricultural and ranching activities, fishing, and mining. There is some international trading activity with Venezuelan towns across the border, across the Orinoco River. Main products in the region are rice, yuca and plantain. Artisan fishing is practiced along ranching. There are gold and silver mines, exploited in a rudimentary way. The municipality often trade commercially with neighboring town of Puerto Páez in Venezuela.

Geography

The municipality of Puerto Carreño is located on the extreme northeastern part of the Department of Vichada bordering to the north and east with the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela using the Meta and Orinoco rivers as borders. To the south Puerto Carreño limits with the municipality of Cumaribo and to the west with the municipality of La Primavera.

The area of the municipality is uniformly flat, although there is a very slight rise at the town which gave it its original name. The climate is hot and dry, with a heavy rain season from April through October averaging a temperature of 28 °C.

The area of the municipality is within the Llanos plains which covers areas in Colombia and Venezuela. Geologically the municipality of Puerto Carreño lies on the Guiana Shield mostly made up by cenozoic and precambric formations, with some low altitude mountains such as the Mounts of Casuarito and the Hormiga and Guaripa mountains.

Arauca, Arauca

Arauca is a municipality and capital city of the Arauca Department of Colombia. Its full name is Villa de Santa Bárbara de Arauca, it is located at N 07° 05′ 25″ - W 70° 45′ 42″. The Municipality of Arauca has a total population of 82,149 (2005 census).

History

The Arauca region was explored by the German conquistador Jorge de la Espira, aka Georg von Speyer, in 1536. These early Spanish did not stay because they were on the quest for El Dorado. But later they were followed by Jesuits and land-grantees who founded the first settlements.

Arauca was founded on December 4, 1780, by Juan Isidro Daboín on the site of an indigenous hamlet of about ten families called Guahibo. Arauca was named after the Arauca River which now separates it from Venezuela, which river in turn was named for the indigenous people the Arauca. The area is flat and subject to frequent flooding from the river.

At one point it was the capital of the New Granada Province of Casanare which was much larger than the current Department of Casanare. In addition, the Villa de Santa Bárbara de Arauca, has been:

Capital of the Republic, under the revolutionary government, constituted July 16, 1816;

Capital of the Police District (Comisaría especial) since 1911;

Capital of the Province (Intendencia Nacional) of Arauca, 1955–1991;

Oil capital of Colombia since1986;

Capital of the Department of Arauca since 1991.

Since its founding, Arauca’s primary business has been the raising of cattle, and this is still true. But increasingly, since 1984 it is the exploitation of nearby petroleum (oil sands) that has provided the bulk of municipal income in recent years. The building of the bridge, Puente José Antonio Páez, connecting it with Venezuela stimulated the economy, as did completion of the highway to Bogotá, known as The Route of the Liberators (La Ruta de los Libertadores). Arauca is now on the main surface route between Caracas and Bogotá.

Medellín

Medellín, officially the Municipio de Medellín  or Municipality of Medellín, is the second largest city in Colombia. It is in the Aburrá Valley, one of the more northerly of the Andes in South America. It has a population of 2.4 million. With its surrounding area, the metropolitan area of Medellín (Area Metropolitana de Medellín), it is the second largest city in Colombia in terms of population and economy, with more than 3.5 million people, and ranks in population as the 91st of the world's largest urban agglomerations.

Medellín was founded in 1616 by the Spaniard Francisco Herrera Y Campuzano as Poblado de San Lorenzo (Saint Lawrence Town) in present-day El Poblado. In 1675 the queen consort Mariana of Austria created the Villa de Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria (Town of Our Lady at Candelaria).

In 1826 the city was named the capital of the Department of Antioquia by the National Congress of the young Republic of Greater Colombia, comprised by present day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama. In 1803 the University of Antioquia, one of the most prestigious in Colombia, was founded. After Colombia won its independence from Spain, Medellín became the capital of the Federal State of Antioquia until 1888, with the proclamation of the Colombian Constitution of 1886. During the 19th century, Medellín was a dynamic commercial center, first exporting gold, then producing and exporting coffee. After the Thousand Days War (1899 — 1902), Medellín was the first Colombian city to take part in the Industrial Revolution with the opening of textile companies, and transport projects such as railways that allowed its export business to develop. In addition, its people founded several universities and vocational training institutions.

At the beginning of the 21st century, the city has regained industrial dynamism, with the construction of the Metro de Medellín railway, and liberalized development policies, improved security, and improved education. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have lauded the city as a pioneer of a post-Washington consensus 'local development state' model of economic development. The city is promoted internationally as a tourist destination.

The Medellín Metropolitan Area produces 67% of the Department of Antioquia's GDP and 11% of the economy of Colombia. Medellín is important to the region for its universities, academies, commerce, industry, science, health services, flower-growing, festivals and nightlife.

Etymology of the name Medellín

The original Spanish settlement had five names before the current one: Aburrá de los Yamesíes, San Lorenzo de Aburrá, San Lorenzo de Aná, Valle de San Bartolomé, and Villa de la Candelaria de Medellín.

The city is named after Medellín, Spain, which is near Badajoz in Extremadura. The Spanish Medellín was founded as Metellinum in 75 BC by Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius. Some of the Conquistadors, such as Gaspar de Rodas, the first governor of Antioquia, came from the region of Badajoz.

Count Pedro Portocarrero y Luna, President of the Council for the West Indies (Consejo de Indias), asked the Spanish monarchy to give the name of his town, Medellín in Extremadura, to the new settlement in America. His request was accepted on November 22, 1674, when the Regent Mariana of Austria proclaimed the city's name to be Villa de Nuestra Señora de Medellín. Miguel Aguinaga y Mendiogoitia, Governor, made the name official on November 2, 1675. The Crown granted a coat of arms to the city on 24 June 1676.

Trade in Medellín

Coltejer is one of the most important textile companies in Colombia. It was founded in Medellín by Alejandro Echavarría on 22 October 1907.

The discovery of coal in Amagá, a few miles south of the Aburrá Valley, and the building of hydroelectric plants provided the new industries with energy, and this allowed the creation of many smaller companies. The Antioquia Railway (built in 1875) conquered the difficult geography of one of the most mountainous regions of South America, notably with the La Quiebra Tunnel, which connected the industrial center to the Magdalena River, the most major navigable river in Colombia. In 1932 Medellín also built its first airport, the Enrique Olaya Herrera Airport.

Art and literature during the first part of the 20th century

The University of Antioquia, the National University of Colombia with its Medellín branch, and the Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana have historically been the academic centers of the city and are responsible for the formation of an intellectual class in the region, with a nationwide and international scope.

Arts and literature have been an important social element in Medellín. During the first part of the 20th century the city was part of the literary transition from romanticism to the modern art and literary movements of the new century. The writer Tomás Carrasquilla (1858–1940) focused on the people of his native Antioquia, accurately portraying their daily lives and customs. The writer and philosopher Fernando González from Envigado (in the metropolitan area of Medellín), the cartoonist Ricardo Rendón and the poet León de Greiff were some of the founders of Los Panidas, a Medellín literary movement. Other featured poets and writers were Porfirio Barbajacob and Efe Gómez. In painting, the most famous were Eladio Vélez and Pedro Nel Gómez. Carlos Vieco Ortiz was a popular musician. Medellín became the headquarters of record labels like Sonolux, Ondina and Silver.

Medellín Master Plan

During the 1950s, industrialists, traders and local government created the "Medellín Master Plan" (MMP) (Plan Piloto), a plan for the expansion of the city into the Aburrá Valley that would lead to the creation of the first metropolitan area in Colombia. Paul Lester Wiener and José Luis Sert were the architects who led the project. Among the main features of the MMP were the canalization of the Medellín River, the control of new settlements on valley slopes, the creation of an industrial zone in the Guayabal District, the planning of the city to be in harmony with the river, the construction of a city stadium, and an administrative center in La Alpujarra.

However, Colombia had entered a new era of political instability with the murder of presidential candidate Jorge Eliecer Gaitán in Bogotá in 1948. Political violence spread in the rural areas of Colombia, and farmers fled to the cities. The population of Medellín grew quickly in the next few years. The Valley slopes became overpopulated with slums. In 1951 the city had 358,189 inhabitants, but 22 years later, in 1973, the population had tripled to 1,071,252.

This population explosion had several consequences for the MMP. The urban limits of the city grew to areas that were not contemplated in the MMP, so that Medellín now reached the urban areas of other cities of the Aburrá Valley, like Envigado, Bello and Itagüí; the new Medellín settlers were poor families without enough credit to buy their own homes, so several neighborhoods were built beyond the MMP; several old downtown buildings were demolished to construct tall towers, offices and avenues. 

Cultural life in the last decades

During the 1950s, a new generation of writers and artists arose in Medellín, with work characterized by a more modern style. Many writers criticized local and national culture. Manuel Mejía Vallejo established a new narrative style without abandoning his regional origins. It was also the time of Nadaism, a literary movement founded by Gonzalo Arango and others. Openly anti-clerical, Nadaism criticised traditional institutions of society, and was considered philosophically nihilist. The painter Debora Arango entered the national arts culture with her works. Fernando Botero, who found the inspiration for his work in the daily life and drama of the city, is a notable 20th-century artist associated with Medellín. He donated most of his works to the Museum of Antioquia, and the grateful city dedicated Botero Square to him. In the 1970s the artist Rodrigo Arenas Betancur erected monumental sculptures not only in Medellín but also in many other regions of Colombia. His famous work, the Monument to the Race in La Alpujarra Administrative Center, was homage to the Paisa culture.

Research

The American Geographical Society is currently working on a project to assemble a complete virtual bibliography of Comuna 13, one of the many barrios of Medellín.

Medellín has the biggest research-dedicated building in Colombia called University Research Building (Spanish: Sede de Investigación Universitaria -SIU-) a facility that concentrates the top research groups of the University of Antioquia (Spanish: Universidad de Antioquia).

Today

The position of Medellín as the top industrial city in Colombia has been a main factor in overcoming its crisis of the 1980s and 1990s. The Metro de Medellín, a massive urban transport service, became the pride of the city, and so far the only sign of the Medellín Master Plan of the 1950s. The construction of the Plaza Mayor of Medellín, an international center for congresses and expositions, was designed to show the globalized economy of Colombia to the world. Medellín is today a modern city with a population of three million.

The former[dubious – discuss] violence also served the purpose of demolishing the high social barriers that were the basis of many social evils. Social exclusion has eased due to the development of transport infrastructure; the Metro, a new system of public buses is being planned with the so-called "Metroplus" and a network of ski-lifts in the poorest barrio communities called the "MetroCable".Today's Medellín includes spaces for art, poetry, drama, the construction of public libraries, the foundation of new ecological parks, and the inclusion of people of the city in its development.

Leticia, Amazonas

Leticia is a city in the Republic of Colombia, capital of the department of Amazonas, Colombia's southernmost town (4.09° south 69.57° west) and the only major port on the Amazon river. It has an elevation of 96 meters above sea level and an average temperature of 27 °C (80.6 °F). Leticia has long been Colombia's shipping point for tropical fishes for the aquarium trade. Leticia has approximately 33,000 inhabitants on the left bank of the Amazon river, and is located at the point where Colombia, Brazil and Peru come together in an area called Tres Fronteras.

A long standing border dispute involving Leticia, between Colombia and Peru, was decided in 1934 by the League of Nations after these two nations were engulfed in an armed conflict known as the Colombia-Peru War. This was the first instance of action by an international body using its powers covered by the Monroe Doctrine.

History

Early Leticia history mentions a Portuguese explorer who, after becoming lost on the Amazon, died of starvation at the present site of Leticia with the rest of his crew. The Peruvian captain Benigno Bustamante, then governor of the Peruvian department of Loreto, founded the city itself on April 25, 1867. Legend has it that when the Peruvian government decided to colonise the area (in order to prevent the Colombian government from claiming it first), they found a cross inscribed with the words "San Antonio", naming the new town after this cross.

A legend states that a Colombian soldier fell in love with an Amerindian woman named Leticia and decided to name the settlement after her. It could also be named after Saint Leticia. However, Peruvian records indicate that on the 15 December 1867, the port of "San Antonio" was renamed to "Leticia" by Peruvian engineer Manuel Charón. Charón named the port in honor of a young female resident of the Peruvian city of Iquitos named Leticia Smith.

Small border incidents between Peru and Colombia occurred in 1911, and in 1922 the two governments of those countries reached a controversial agreement awarding the Leticia area to Colombia in exchange for recognizing Peru's rights to the zone south of the Putumayo River, which was also claimed by Ecuador. 

The population of Leticia

Though the League of Nations' intervention had officially ended the war, the Colombian government remained wary of the Peruvians, and decided to populate Leticia with people from Bogotá in order to ensure the town's loyalty to Colombia. Most of the people who came from Bogotá from the 1940s to 1965 still live in Leticia today. During that time Leticia expanded greatly, with a new main street being built. However, the city's industries have changed little since then, with agriculture and tourism still the prime sources of income.

Recent history

Little of note has occurred in the city in the last twenty years. In 2003, President Álvaro Uribe came to the region and listened to the issues of the townspeople for 12 hours. He promised to bring in help for Leticia's sagging economy, including building a branch of a famous Colombian resort chain, the Decameron Resort Company, to attract tourism and aid social problems. In late 2004, a hotel was rented to Decameron and has since brought more tourism to the area. Today there are three airlines going from Bogota to Leticia each day: Aero Republica, AIRES and SATENA.

Tourism in Leticia has boomed and the town is today the second tourism destination for foreigners after Cartagena de Indias. International students travel to Leticia to learn Spanish at The Amazon Spanish College. Meanwhile students and visitors can enjoy the attractions nearby the city like Mundo Amazonico Ecological Park.

Climate

Leticia features a tropical rainforest climate with minimal difference in average high and low temperatures throughout the course of the year. Leticia does have noticeably wetter and drier months, with its wettest month (May) seeing a little more than twice as much precipitation as its driest month (July). The average monthly rainfall in the city is above 100 mm.

Culture and People

The majority of Leticia's population have migrated from elsewhere. There is no obviously dominant segment, but migrants from Bogotá, Medellín, and Tolima are the majority. Few people from Cali live in Leticia. A significant proportion of Leticia's population comprises native Amerindians (as opposed to mestizos or caboclos). The prevailing trend is for people to move from the village of their birth in far-lying rural communities into the city to make a "better" living.

Food

Although the inhabitants commonly eat the same things each week, a wide variety of food is available in Leticia. Dishes specific to each of Colombia's regions are made here. For example, people make Sancocho, a hearty soup, with regional variations in different parts of Colombia. But even within regions, each family has its own recipe. Leticia's cuisine includes Brazilian and Peruvian influences. Common staples in Leticia include river fish, domestic (and occasionally wild) meat, rice, locally-grown vegetables and potatoes. Meals are usually cooked over a wood-fired stovetop in a pan. A typical Sunday meal might comprise grilled meats, cooked in makeshift charcoal grillers, served with rice and plantains.

Attractions

Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu (River) Isla de los Micos(River) Puerto Nariño(River) Lago Tarapoto(River) Lago Yahuarcacas (km.2) Parque temático Mundo Amazónico (Km. 7) Museum Banco de la República (Downtown) Parque Orellana and Santander (Downtown)

Bogotá, Distrito Capital

Bogotá, Distrito Capital,  from 1991 to 2000 called Santa Fé de Bogotá, is the capital city of Colombia. It is also designated by the national constitution as the capital of the department of Cundinamarca, even though the city of Bogotá now comprises an independent Capital district and no longer belongs administratively to that department. Bogotá is the most populous city in the country, with an estimated 7,304,384 inhabitants as of 2009. Bogotá and its metropolitan area, which includes municipalities such as Chía, Cota, Soacha, Cajicá and La Calera, had an estimated population of 8,566,926 in 2009.

In terms of land area, Bogotá is the largest city in Colombia, and one of the biggest of Latin America. It figures amongst the thirty largest cities of the world and it is the third-highest capital city in South America (after La Paz and Quito) at 2,625 metres (8,612 ft) above sea level. With its many universities and libraries, Bogotá has become known as "The Athens of South America".Bogotá owns the largest moorland of the world, which is located in the Sumapaz Locality. The city ranked 54th in the 2010 Global Cities Index  and is listed as global city of the Beta+ kind by the GaWC.

Myths and beliefs

Chía was Zipa’s territory ceremonial centre, a place destined to worship the Moon, while the Zaque’s ceremonial centre was Sogamoso, where the Sun temple was located. Apparently, major Muisca priests function was astronomic observation. Numerous archeological monuments in the form of stone columns witness the relation, such as «Cojines del Diablo» (Devil’s Cushions) two large discs carved high up in the rock within Tunja urban perimeter, which were probably moon observation sites. At Saquenzipa, a ceremonial centre near Villa de Leyva, some 25 large cylindrical columns aligned in the east-west direction stand: from this place, on summer solstice day the sun rises exactly over Iguaque lake from where Bachué goddess emerged as the legend tells.

Bochica, the civilizing God thought them manual arts, gave them moral standards and subsequently saved them from deluge and plains flooding by breaking the rock and letting the water flow to form Tequendama falls. Chia goddess was the moon, Zuhé the sun. They worshiped other astral gods. For Muiscas, lakes were sacred places where they had their ceremonies. Their most important myths and legends mention Guatavita, Siecha, Tota, Fúquene and Iguaque lakes, where gold and ceramic gifts have been found. They also worshipped the dead, nobles and chiefs whom were mummified and buried with all their belongings.

Goldsmith and ceramics

Although Muisca had no gold, they obtained it from trading with other tribes. They manufactured diverse pieces, the most outstanding are tunjos, small anthropomorphic or zoomorphic figures they offered their gods. Among diverse techniques they used to manufacture those pieces are lost wax, hammering and repouseé. Gold objects served for funerary and sacred gifts. They also made necklaces, bracelets, earrings, pectorals, nose rings and other pieces they used for adorning themselves. The Gold Museum and other private collection museums still preserves some of those pieces. They were excellent at weaving and outstanding potters.

Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada expedition

From 1533 belief persisted in the sense that Río Grande de la Magdalena was the trail to the South Sea, to Peru, legendary Dorado. Such was the target Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, the Spaniard conqueror who left Santa Marta on April 6, 1536 with 500 soldiers heading towards the interior of current Colombia was set to reach. The expedition divided into two groups, one under Quesada command to move on land and the other commanded by Diego de Urbino would go up river in four brigantine ships to later on meet Quesada troops at the site named Tora de las Barrancas Bermejas. When they arrived they heard news about Indians inhabiting the south and making large salt cakes used to trade for wild cotton and fish. Jiménez decided to abandon the route to Peru and cross the mountain in search for «salt villages». They saw crops, trails, white salt cakes and then huts where they found corn, yucca and beans. From Tora the expedition went up the Opón river and found Indians covered with very fine painted cotton mats. When they arrived to Grita Valley, of the expedition leaving Santa Marta only 70 men were left.

Along their trip they took a large amount of gold and emeralds. In Hunza they captured the Zaque Quemuenchatocha and headed towards Sogamoso, where they plundered and set the Sun temple on fire obtaining immense prize.

Spanish colonization,Foundation of Bogotá

Following conquerors motto to found and to populate, Quesada decided to build an urban settlement to live in good order and under stable government. To the east on the foothills they found an Indian village named Teusaquillo near the Zipa’s recreation residence, supplied with water, wood and planting land and protected from winds by Monserrate and Guadalupe hills.

Although no document recording city foundation has been found, August 6, 1538 is accepted as foundation date. According to tradition, that day Priest Fray Domingo de las Casas said the first mass in a straw hut built near the current cathedral or near Santander park. It is said that the region was named New Kingdom of Granada that day and the village was named Santa Fe.

Urban design

Urban design consisted in squares and from that time the one hundred meters per lienzo de cuadra prevails. Traverse streets – east-west – were 0.1 meters wide and current carreras 10000 meters wide. In 1553 the Main Plaza—now Bolívar Plaza—was moved to its current site and the first cathedral construction on the eastern side began. On the other sides the Chapter and the Royal Hearing were located. The street joining the Major Plaza and Herbs Plaza—currently Santander park—was named «Calle Real» (Royal Street) now Carrera Seventh.

Population of Santa Fe

Formed by Whites, Mestizos, Indians, and slaves; from the second half of the 16th century the population began rapidly growing. 1789 census recorded 18,161 inhabitants and by 1819 the city population amounted to 30,000 inhabitants distributed in 195 blocks. Importance grew when the diocese was created. Up to 1585 the only parish was the Cathedral, later on Las Nieves to the north and Santa Bárbara south of the Main Plaza were created.

Government and administration

City Mayor and the Chapter formed by two Council men assisted by the Constable and the Police Chief governed the city. For better administering these domains in April 1550 the Audience of Santafé de Bogotá was organized, for Hearers to act. From that time the city became the capital and the home of New Kingdom of Granada government. Fourteen years later in 1564, the Spanish Crown designated the first Royal Audience Chairman, Andrés Díaz Venero de Leyva. The New Granada became Viceroy-ship in 1739 and kept that condition until Liberator Simón Bolívar achieved independence in 1819.

Religion

After dominating indigenous populations by war, conquest by religion began assisted by religious communities established in the entire Colombian territory from the 16th century, Churches and convents were built for the Franciscan, Dominican, Augustine communities and later on in 1604, Jesuits, Capuchin monks and Clarisse, Dominican and Barefooted Carmelite nuns. Such communities marked the spirit and uses of Santafereños, since they exercised ideology, political and cultural domination only slightly reduced when in 1767, Carlos III ordered Jesuit expulsion from Spanish colonies in America.

Educational centers

As for the rest of Spanish America, religious communities were fundamental in the field of education, which by order of the Crown took place in churches and convents. The first two universities are the deed of Dominican monks (1563 and 1573). In 1592 San Bartolomé seminar school was founded to provide higher education to Spanish children; Jesuits ruled the school, and in 1605 they founded the Maximum School located in one of the Major Plaza corners.

In 1580 Dominicans founded Pontificia Univesidad of Santo Tomás de Aquino Arts and Philosophy school, and in 1621 Jesuits started San Francisco Javier or Javeriana University courses. In 1653 Fray Cristóbal de Torres founded Colegio Mayor de Nuestra Señora del Rosario. In 1783 the first educational community and the first school for woman education were founded in New Granada: La Enseñanza school ruled by the community of María. From that time school lessons for women started, a right up to then reserved to men.

Plastic arts

During colonial centuries two trends were clear, which common source was formed by religious topics: culta, highly influenced by metropolitan 17th century painting counted in the Santa Fe school with outstanding individuals, for instance Baltasar de Figueroa, the head of a painters dynasty, who created and maintained the school where Gregorio Vázquez de Arce y Ceballos (1638–1711), was formed, perhaps the most outstanding person of the time; and popular, formed by more ingenuous painters free from influences of the time, who did not belong to any school. They interpreted biblical scenes, the life of saints and Christ and the Virgin life episodes in carved wood or painted but in a more free style.

Wood carving is highly positioned within plastic production of the time and the maximum expression is found in retable adorning most Colombian churches, for instance San Francisco church main alter retable, mostly carved by Ignacio García de Ascucha.

Pedro Laboria, Spaniard formed in Seville art schools who came to Bogotá, very young and lived here the rest of his life is one of the outstanding sculptors.

French influence dominating Spain during the 18th century when the Borbon dynasty took the throne, also characterized American colonies artistic trends. By mid century painting and decoration secularized in American colonies and French style marked government, high Creole burgess-ship and higher church hierarchy taste. Religious themes gave space to personal portraits. The best known painter of the time was Joaquín Gutiérrez, Viceroys portraitist.

Botanic Expedition

The most important contribution of the time to scientific American nature knowledge was the Botanic Expedition, for the objective of studying native flora. Started by order to Archbishop-Viceroy Caballero y Góngora under the direction of José Celestino Mutis and contributions from scientists as renowned as Francisco José de Caldas, Jorge Tadeo Lozano and Francisco Antonio Zea. Originally sited in Mariquita in 1791 and subsequently transferred to Santa Fe were it worked until 1816.

Painters who cooperated with the work left a series of carefully drawn precious illustrations in witness of research conducted. They were Francisco Javier Matiz and Pablo Antonio García.

History

The History of Bogotá refers to the history of the area surrounding the Colombian capital city of Bogotá. The area of modern Bogotá was first populated by groups of indigenous people that migrated from mesoamerica. Among these groups were the Muiscas that settled in what is now mainly Cundinamarca and Boyacá. With the arrival of the Spanish colonizers the area became a major settlement, founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada and later capital of the Spanish provinces and the seat of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. With independence Bogotá became capital of the Gran Colombia and later the capital of the Republic of Colombia.